List of recipesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis page is a candidate to be copied to the Wikibooks Cookbook using the Import process.If the page can be edited into an encyclopedic article, rather than simply a recipe, please do so and remove this message.To facilitate the copying of this article, please consider listing it on Wikibooks:Requests for Import. Check to see if the cookbook already has a page about this recipe or ingredient and alternatively use a {{softredirect}}.v ? d ? e Cuisine (outline)Regional African ? Americas ? Arab ? Asian ? Caribbean ? Central Asian ? Eastern European ? European ? Sami ? Latin American ? Mediterranean ? Middle Eastern ? North African ? South Asian ? West AfricanNational Afghan ? Albanian ? Algerian ? American ? Argentine ? Armenian ? Australian ? Austrian ? Azerbaijani ? Bahraini ? Belarusian ? Belgian ? Belizean ? Bhutanese ? Bolivian ? Bosnia and Herzegovina ? Botswanan ? Brazilian ? British ? Bulgarian ? Burkinabe ? Burmese ? 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Wikibooks:CookbookContents [hide]1 Recipes by category1.1 Albanian cuisine1.2 Argentine cuisine1.3 Australian cuisine1.4 Austrian cuisine1.5 Bosnian-Herzegovinian cuisine1.6 Brazilian cuisine1.7 British cuisine1.8 Bulgarian cuisine1.9 Chilean cuisine1.10 Chinese cuisine (Cantonese)1.10.1 Soup1.10.2 Appetizers1.10.3 Meal1.10.4 Dessert1.10.4.1 tong sui1.10.5 Dim sum1.10.6 Others1.11 Croatian cuisine1.12 Cuban cuisine1.13 Czech cuisine1.14 Danish cuisine1.15 Dutch cuisine1.16 Dominican Cuisine1.17 Egyptian cuisine1.18 French cuisine1.19 German cuisine1.20 Greek cuisine1.21 Hungarian cuisine1.22 Iranian cuisine1.23 Indian cuisine1.24 Irish cuisine1.25 Israeli cuisine1.26 Italian cuisine1.27 Jamaican cuisine1.28 Japanese cuisine1.29 Jewish cuisine1.30 Korean cuisine1.31 Macedonian cuisine1.32 Maltese cuisine1.33 Mexican cuisine1.34 Montenegrin cuisine1.35 New Zealand cuisine1.36 Norwegian Cuisine1.37 Persian1.38 Peruvian Cuisine1.39 Polish cuisine1.40 Portuguese cuisine1.41 Quebec cuisine1.42 Romanian cuisine1.43 Russian cuisine1.44 Serbian cuisine1.45 Slovak cuisine1.46 Slovenian cuisine1.47 Spanish cuisine1.48 Swedish cuisine1.49 Swiss cuisine1.50 Thai cuisine1.51 Tex-Mex cuisine1.52 Turkish cuisine1.53 Ukrainian cuisine1.54 Vegetarian cuisine1.55 Vegan cuisine1.56 Welsh cuisine1.57 19th century recipes from the Household Cyclopedia2 More unusual dining experiences3 Historical Collections of recipes4 See also5 References[edit]Recipes by category[edit]Albanian cuisineAlbanian vegetable pie: article, recipeBaked lamb and yogurt: recipeBaked leeks: recipeBean Jahni soup: recipeElli's veal or chicken with walnuts recipeF?rges? of Tirana with peppers: recipeF?rges? of Tirana with veal: recipeFried meatballs: recipeGarlic dressings: recipeMixed vegetables: recipePotato and cabbage soup: recipeStewed dry figs dessert: recipeCaesar salad: article, recipeCheesesteak: articleFried Chicken: articleLemon meringue pie: articleMincemeat tart: article, recipesNo-Bake Chocolate Chip Cookie Pie: recipeNot Quite Eggs Benedict: recipePeach Cobbler: articlePotato Salad: article, recipePound cake: article, recipePumpkin pie: article, recipePur?e Mongole: article, recipeRoasted brined turkey: recipeSimple nachos: recipeS'more: article, recipeStuffing (a.k.a. Dressing): articleSweet Potato pie: articleTuna Salad: articleHot dogs: articleHamburgers: articleFrench fries: articleFurther unwritten articles and recipes: Fried Cheese Curds, Mashed potatoes, Pickle Pie[edit]Argentine cuisineEmpanadas: articleAsado: articleLocro: articleDulce de Leche: articlechimichurri: article[edit]Australian cuisineANZAC biscuits: recipeAustralian Aboriginal sweet foodsAustralian and New Zealand meat pieBushfoodCarpetbag steakChiko RollChocolate cracklesDamper: RecipeDim simKangaroo meatLamingtons: recipeMacadamiasPavlova: recipePikelet: recipePie floater: RecipePumpkin sconesSausage rollVanilla sliceVegemite[edit]Austrian cuisineKaiserschmarrn: recipeKn?del (German;Klo?)Palatschinke (Palatschinken): recipePowidlSachertorte: recipeWiener Schnitzel[edit]Bosnian-Herzegovinian cuisineBosanski LonacCevapciciLivno cheese[edit]Brazilian cuisineA?a?Acaraj?Carreteiro e ArrozCanjicaChurrascoDoce de leiteFarofaFeijoada: RecipeFeij?o tropeiroMoquecaPalmitoP?o de queijoPasteisP?-de-moleque:PizzaPolentaQuindimTapiocaVatap?[edit]British cuisineBaltiBangers and mash (sausages and mashed potato)Beef WellingtonBlack peasBlack puddingBread and butter puddingBubble and squeakCheeseChicken tikka masalaChristmas puddingClotted creamCornish pastyCottage pieCranachanCr?me br?l?eDumplingsFish and chipsHaggis (Scotland)HashKnickerbocker gloryLancashire hotpotMince piePie and mashPork piePound cakeQueen of PuddingsShepherd's pieScouseSpotted dickSticky toffee puddingSunday roastToad in the holeUlster fry (Northern Ireland)Welsh rarebitYorkshire pudding[edit]Bulgarian cuisineShopska salataSkembe chorbaTaratorMusakaBanitsaSurmiKapama (from Bansko)Zelnik (from Samokov)KebapchetaLamb for the day of St. GeorgeBob s nadenica (beans with sausage)Carp for the day of St. NikolayKavurmaLuchnik (from Troyan)KacamakTikvena banitsa (banitsa with pumpkin)YoghurtKozunak[edit]Chilean cuisineBarros JarpaBarros LucoCazuelaCharquic?nCompletoCurantoHumitaLonganizaMote con huesilloMurta con membrilloPebre[edit]Chinese cuisine (Cantonese)[edit]Souphot and sour soupwontonShark fin soup is a Chinese soup made with shark's fin, crab meat and egg that is often served in banquets.Lemon Soup a Greek soup that is not sour[edit]Appetizersstinky tofuxiaolongbao/???Shengjian mantou/????baozi/??Spring roll/??Jiaozi dumplings[edit]Mealsteamed ricePeking DuckSweet and sour porklemon chickensesame chickenKung Pao chickenmapo doufumongolian beefFried riceChow meinchinese steamed eggs/???Buddha's delight/???wonton noodle/???Beef chow fun/????little pan rice /??? is rice cooke in clay pot style.[edit]Dessertegg custard tart/??/dan tat/d?nt?douhua/Dou fu fa /tofu pudding/??, ???swallow's nestMango pudding /????/mong guo bo din/????/m?ngguob?dingNian gao/??/Chinese New Year cake[edit]tong suitong sui/?? is a form of soup that is sweet that is usually served as dessert.mung bean soup/???, ???red bean soup/???, ???black sesame soup/???egg tong sui/????sai mai lo/???[edit]Dim sumsiu maiCha siu baau/???turnip cake/???/lo bak go/lu?bogaotaro cake/???Zhaliang/??Shrimp Dumpling/??/har gauChiu-chao style dumplings/????Rice noodle rolls/??/cheong funNgau yuk kau/Niu rou qiu/???, ??, ???/steamed grounded beef ballWater chestnut cake/???/maa tai gow[edit]Othersoolongcongee/?[edit]Croatian cuisineIstrian StewPa?ki sirZagrebacki odrezak[edit]Cuban cuisineRopa viejaPicadilloMasas de PuercoMedianochePlatanos MaduroFrijoles negrosBacalaoArroz con polloCuban sandwich[edit]Czech cuisinevepro-knedlo-zelo[edit]Danish cuisineStuvet gr?nlangk?l (stewed kale)Stegt fl?sk med persillesovs (fried slices of pork with parsley sauce)Hakkedrenge med bl?de l?g og bearnaise (chop-boys with mushy onions and sauce bearnaise)For?rsruller (springrolls (from Daloon))Frikadeller (meat balls) med agurkesalat (cucumber salad)Kylling a la Tijuana (Tijuana Chicken) (IMPORTANT: This dish is named after the famous danish art ensemble called Tijuana - and not the mexican city)[edit]Dutch cuisineBalkenbrijPea soupStroopwafels[edit]Dominican Cuisine This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.[edit]Egyptian cuisineFoul medamesTaameyaBasboussaTahinaMolokheya[edit]French cuisineBechamel sauceMirepoixLe TourinCoq au VinRatatouilleCr?pesChocolate Mousse (Mousse au chocolat)Cr?me br?l?e, (recipe)[edit]German cuisineKn?del and Kl??eWiener Schnitzel (Austrian, but available everywhere)SauerkrautSaumagenPotato saladSauerbraten[edit]Greek cuisineTzatzikiSouvlakiCalamariSpanakopitaBaklava[edit]Hungarian cuisineDobos torteGuly?s (or goulash)Lecs?Rigo JancsiKolb?szT?r?s csusza[edit]Iranian cuisineSabzi polo[edit]Indian cuisineBengal potatoesTandooriGaram masalaPanch phoronMaharashtrian cuisineSnack foodKothimbir VadiSweetsSouth Indian cuisineTamil cuisineAndhra cuisineCuisine of KeralaCuisine of KarnatakaNorth Indian cuisineCookbook:Chicken MadrasCookbook:Cuisine of IndiaCookbook:Puliyodarai QuickSwetha's CookbookMom's recipes[edit]Irish cuisineCorned beef and cabbageCoddleFull breakfastIrish stewPotatoesIrish whiskeyColcannonGuinness[edit]Israeli cuisineIsraeli saladBourekasBagel toastShakshouka[edit]Italian cuisinePezzetti di cavalloSauces:Espagnole sauceVelout? sauceGenoese sauceItalian spaghetti sauceHam sauceTarragon sauceTomato sauceTomato sauce piquanteMushroom sauceNeapolitan sauceNeapolitan anchovy sauceRoman sauceSupr?me saucePasta marinateWhite villeroyPestoSoups:Clear soupSpring soupSoup alla LombardaTuscan soupVenetian soupRoman soupSoup alla NazionaleSoup alla ModaneseCrotopo soupSoup all'ImperatriceNeapolitan soupSoup with risottoSoup alla CanaveseSoup alla Maria PiaLettuce soupQueen's soupMinestroneCondiment for seasoning minestroneMinestrone alla CasalingaWikibooks:Transwiki:Minestrone of rice and turnipMinestrone alla CapucinaMinestrone of SemolinaWikibooks:Minestrone alla MilaneseMinestrone of rice and cabbageMinestrone of rice and celeryPasta:Baked zitiBoiled pasta (generic)GnocchiGarlic parmesan pasta[edit]Jamaican cuisineJamaican jerk spiceCurry ChickenBrown Stewed ChickenRum CakeOxtailBeef PattyAckee and saltfishSteamed Fish and OkraRum Punch[edit]Japanese cuisineDonburiOkonomiyakiOyakodonSashimiSushiTempura[edit]Jewish cuisineBlintzCholentGefilte fishKnaydelKugelMatzo[edit]Korean cuisineSide dishesKimchiMain DishesGalbiBulgogiSamgyeopsalDaeji galbiSoupsKimchi jjigaeDoenjang jjigae[edit]Macedonian cuisineGuvchelvkaPindurTavce GravceZelnik[1][edit]Maltese cuisineAljottaArjoliBalbuljata/BarbuljataBebbux (Snails)BigillaBragjoliBroduFalda mimlijaFenek (Rabbit)FigollaFroga tat-TarjaFtiraGbejnietGulepp tal-HarrubHelwa tat-TorkHobz biz-zejtImbuljutaKapunataKannoli tar-RikottaKaramelli tal-HarrubKawlataKinnieKusksuKwarezimalLaham fuq il-FwarLampukiMinestraMqaretMqarrun il-FornPastizzi tar-Rikotta/tal-PizelliPrinjolataPudina tal-HobzQaghaq ta' l-GhaselQassatatRavjulRoss il-FornSfineg ta' l-IncovaSinizzaSoppa ta' l-ArmlaSoppa tal-Qargha HamraStuffat tal-QarnitTimpanaTorta tal-MarmuratTorta tat-TamalTwisteesZalzett tal-Malti[edit]Mexican cuisineArroz BlancoCarnitasChalupaChilaquilesChile rellenoChipotle sauceEnchiladasFlautaFrijoles CharrosGuacamoleHuevos rancherosMenudoPay De Nuez Pecan PiePork Loin VampiroPucheroPozoleQuesadillaRefried beansSalpiconSopaipillasTacoTamalesTostadaarroz verde[edit]Montenegrin cuisineNjegu?ka pr?uta[edit]New Zealand cuisineANZAC biscuits: recipeColonial gooseLamingtons: recipePavlova: recipeHangiPorkbones and puha (boil-up)MarmiteFish and Chips[edit]Norwegian CuisineF?rik?lPinnekj?ttSmalahove[edit]PersianTahdiqChelow kababKabab koobidehGheimehQormeh sabzi[edit]Peruvian CuisineCevichePapa a la HuancainaKabab koobideh[edit]Polish cuisineBigosKielbasaKutiaRos?lZupa og?rkowaPierogiZurekGolabki[edit]Portuguese cuisineMadeira cakeFeijoada: recipePast?is de Nata: Recipe[edit]Quebec cuisineBaked beansBread puddingCaribouCretonsMaple syrupP?t? chinois (Sheppard'sPie)Pea soupPoutineTourti?re[edit]Romanian cuisineArdei umplutiCozonacCiorbaFrigaruiMamaligaMiciRasolSarmaleTuicaZacusca[edit]Russian cuisineBorschttvorozhnikiVareniki[edit]Serbian cuisineBurekCevapciciGibanicaKulenPljeskavicaRakiaSarmaSerbian saladSlivovitz[edit]Slovak cuisineBryndzov? halu?kyHalu?kyParen? buchtyStrapackyZemiakov? placky (potato pancake)Franc?zske zemiaky[edit]Slovenian cuisineKranjska klobasaPrekmurska gibanica[edit]Spanish cuisinePaellaGazpachoChurro[edit]Swedish cuisineChokladbollKn?ck (toffee)K?ttbullar (meatballs)?rtsoppa (pea soup)[edit]Swiss cuisineFondueRacletteR?sti[edit]Thai cuisineTom kha gai[edit]Tex-Mex cuisineChili con carneFajitasNachosGuacamole[edit]Turkish cuisineBaklavaDolmaImam bayildiKumpirK?fte[edit]Ukrainian cuisineBorshchHolubtsi: RecipePaczki[edit]Vegetarian cuisineBroccoli burgerBulghur burger[edit]Vegan cuisineKaleSkilletStuffed tomatoes[edit]Welsh cuisineBara brith: recipeCawl: recipeCrempogs: recipeFaggots: recipeLaverbread: recipeWelsh cake: recipe[edit]19th century recipes from the Household CyclopediaNote that most of these need to be rewritten using more modern recipe notation.MeatVenison recipesFish recipes1:BAKED PICKEREL.Carefully clean and wipe the fish, and lay in a dripping pan with enough hot water to prevent scorching. A perforated sheet of tin, fitting loosely, or several muffin rings may be used to keep it off the bottom. Lay it in a circle on its belly, head and tail touching, and tied, or as directed in note on fish; bake slowly, basting often with butter and water. When done, have ready a cup of sweet cream or rich milk to which a few spoons of hot water has been added; stir in two large spoons of melted butter and a little chopped parsley; heat all by setting the cup in boiling water; add the gravy from the dripping-pan, and let it boil up once; place the fish in a hot dish and pour over it the sauce. Or an egg sauce may be made with drawn butter; stir in the yolk of an egg quickly, and then a teaspoon of chopped parsley. It can be stuffed or not, just as you please.2:BOILED SALMONThe middle slice of salmon is the best. Sew up neatly in a mosquito-net bag, and boil a quarter of an hour to the pound in hot salted water. When done, unwrap with care, and lay upon a hot dish, taking care not to break it. Have ready a large cupful of drawn butter, very rich, in which has been stirred a tablespoonful of minced parsley and the juice of a lemon. Pour half upon the salmon and serve the rest in a boat. Garnish with parsley and sliced eggs. SALMON PATTIES.Cut cold, cooked salmon into dice. Heat about a pint of the dice in half a pint of cream. Season to taste with cayenne pepper and salt. Fill the shells and serve. Cold, cooked fish of any kind may be made into patties in this way. Use any fish sauce you choose?all are equally good. BROILED SALMON.Cut slices from an inch to an inch and a half thick, dry them in a cloth, season with salt and pepper, dredge them in sifted flour, and broil on a gridiron rubbed with suet.Another Mode.?Cut the slices one inch thick, and season them with pepper and salt; butter a sheet of white paper, lay each slice on a separate piece, envelop them in it with their ends twisted; broil gently over a clear fire, and serve with anchovy or caper sauce. When higher seasoning is required, add a few chopped herbs and a little spice. FRESH SALMON FRIED.Cut the slices three-quarters of an inch thick, dredge them with flour, or dip them in egg and crumbs; fry a light brown. This mode answers for all fish cut into steaks. Season well with salt and pepper. SALMON AND CAPER SAUCE.Two slices of salmon, one-quarter pound butter, one-half teaspoonful of chopped parsley, one shallot; salt and pepper to taste.Lay the salmon in a baking dish, place pieces of butter over it, and add the other ingredients, rubbing a little of the seasoning into the fish; place it in the oven and baste it frequently; when done, take it out and drain for a minute or two; lay it in a dish, pour caper sauce over it and serve. Salmon dressed in this way, with tomato sauce, is very delicious. ::How to cook oystersCodfishFlounders -- a la cremeFrench stew of peas and baconChowder -- New England Chowder, Daniel Webster's ChowderSoup recipesSoup maigrePortable soupAsparagus soupGiblet soupCharitable soupVeal gravy soupBeef gravy soupRice and meat soup ? Transwikied to wikibooksCheap soupHerring soupNutritious soupScotch brothVegetable soupPea soup -- done, please commentCorn soup -- done, please commentClam chowderOyster soupChicken soupChicken brothSaucesDrawn butterMiser's sauceNivernoise sauceTomato catsupFish sauceApple saucePotato recipesBroiling tomatoesBaking tomatoesSteaming potatoesCooking mushroomsTapioca recipesPuddingsDr. Kitchener's puddingYorkshire puddingFrumentyWindsor puddingCheshire puddingTransparent puddingCarrot puddingPlain rice puddingBlackberry mushBread puddingQuince pudding -- done, please commentDessertsRaspberry DumplingsRaspberry and Cream TartsPaste for tartsPie crust -- done, as b:Cookbook:Traditional Pie CrustPuff pastryMince piesShortcrust pastryIndian pone[edit]More unusual dining experiencesAlice B. Toklas browniesDandelions[edit]Historical Collections of recipesForme of Cury[edit]See alsoCulinary artCuisineList of cocktailsGourmet Museum and Library[edit]RecipeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about culinary recipes. For a discussion of semiconductor IC recipes, see Semiconductor fabrication.This article may contain wording that merely promotes the subject without imparting verifiable information. Please remove or replace such wording, unless you can cite independent sources that support the characterization.Recipe in a cookbook for a cake with the prepared ingredientsAn example recipe, printed from the Wikibooks Cookbook.A recipe is a set of instructions that describe how to prepare or make something, especially a culinary dish.Contents [hide]1 Components2 History of the recipe3 Recipes on TV and the Internet4 Recipe design tools5 Recipe Software6 See also7 References[edit]ComponentsModern culinary recipes normally consist of several componentsThe name (and often the locale or provenance) of the dishHow much time it will take to prepare the dishThe required ingredients along with their quantities or proportionsEquipment and environment needed to prepare the dishAn ordered list of preparation stepsThe number of servings that the recipe will provideThe texture and flavourSome recipes will note how long the dish will keep and its suitability for freezing. Nutritional information, such as calories per serving and grams of protein, fat, and carbohydrates per serving, may also be given.Earlier recipes often included much less information, serving more as a reminder of ingredients and proportions for someone who already knew how to prepare the dish.Recipe writers sometimes also list variations of a traditional dish, to give different tastes of the same recipes.[edit]History of the recipeThe earliest known recipes date from approximately 1600 BC and come from an Akkadian tablet from southern Babylonia.[1]There are ancient Egyptians hieroglyphics depicting the preparation of food.[citation needed]Many ancient Greek recipes are known. Mithaecus's cookbook was an early one, but most of it has been lost; Athenaeus quotes one short recipe in his Deipnosophistae. Athenaeus mentions many other cookbooks, all of them lost.[2]Roman recipes are known starting in the 2nd century BCE with Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura. Many other authors of this period described eastern Mediterranean cooking in Greek and in Latin.[2]Some Punic recipes are known in Greek and Latin translation.[2]Much later, in the 4th or 5th century, appears the large collection of recipes conventionally entitled 'Apicius', the only more or less complete surviving cookbook from the classical world.[2] It chronicles the courses served which are usually referred to as Gustatio (appetizer), Primae Mensae (main course) and Secundae Mensae (dessert).[3] The Romans introduced many herbs and spices into western cuisine, Renfrew[4] states that basil, bay, dill, fennel, mint, parsley, rue and thyme were all common in Roman cooking.Arabic recipes are documented starting in the 10th century; see al-Warraq and al-Baghdadi.King Richard II of England commissioned a recipe book called Forme of Cury in 1390,[5] around the same time another book was published entitled Curye on Inglish.[6] Both books give an impression of how food was prepared and served in the noble classes of England at that time. The revival of the European class system at this time brought entertainment back to the palaces and homes of the nobility and along with it the start of what can be called the modern recipe book. By the 15th century, numerous manuscripts were appearing, detailing the recipes of the day. Many of these, such as the Harleian MS[clarification needed] 279, Harleian MS 4016, Ashmole MS 1429, Laud MS 553 and Dure MS 55,[7] give very good information and record the re-discovery of many herbs and spices including coriander, parsley, basil and rosemary, many of which had been brought back from the Crusades.During the 16th century and 17th century, competition between the large houses became common place and numerous books were written on how to manage households and prepare food. In Holland[8] and England[9] competition grew between the noble families as to who could prepare the most lavish banquet. By the 1660s, cookery had progressed to an art form and good cooks were in demand. Many of them published their own books detailing their recipes in competition with their rivals.[10] Many of these books have now been translated and are available online.[11]By the 19th century, cooking had become a passion throughout the world. Using the latest technology and a new concept in publishing, Mrs Beeton (1836?1865) published her famous Book of Household Management in 24 monthly parts between 1857 and 1861. Around the same time the American cook Fannie Farmer (1857?1915) was born and, having devoted herself to cooking, published in 1896 her famous work The Boston Cooking School Cookbook which contained some 1849 recipes.[12][edit]Recipes on TV and the InternetBy the mid 20th century, there were literally thousands of cookery and recipe books available. The next revolution came with introduction of the TV cooks. The first TV cook in England was Fanny Craddock who had her show on the BBC, later followed by chefs such as Graham Kerr (known as the Galloping Gourmet). These TV cookery programs brought the recipes of these cooks to a new audience who were keen to try out new ways of cooking. In the early days, the recipes were available by post from the BBC and later with the introduction of the CEEFAX text on screen system, they became available on the television. The new companies of Channel 4 and S4C also brought recipes to the television with their own text system called ORACLE.In the early 21st century, there has been a renewed focus on cooking at home due to the late-2000s recession.[13] Television networks such as the Food Network, and magazines are still a major source of recipe information, with international cooks and chefs such as Jamie Oliver, Gordon Ramsay, Nigella Lawson and Rachael Ray having prime-time shows and backing them up with Internet websites giving the details of all their recipes. Internet sites such as AllRecipes, Epicurious and Food Network have become extremely popular destinations to find recipe information, as well as mobile applications. Even reality TV shows such as Top Chef or Iron Chef challenged the idea of culinary arts by having chefs compete against each other in culinary challenges.Recipes - for the most part - missed the Web 2.0 innovation spurt, possibly a lingering effect from early food web failures such as Webvan. By 2010, with a renewed sense of innovation and optimism in the technology world, there were a new crop of recipe sites that were using semantic, social, and communal principles to advance the category online.Today, despite the Internet, cookery books are as popular if not more so than they have ever been.[edit]Recipe design toolsWhile traditionally one needs to buy ingredients listed in recipes, modern technology brought tools that enable reverse recipe lookup - users list ingredients they have, and the tool retrieves recipes they can make.[14]Molecular gastronomy provides chefs with cooking techniques and ingredients. But this discipline also provides new theories and methods which aid recipe design. These methods are used by chefs, foodies, home cooks and even mixologists worldwide to improve or design recipes. Foodpairing identifies which foods go well with one another. The method provides food and/or beverage combinations that are solely based on the flavor profile of the food and beverage products.[edit]Recipe SoftwareEnormous volumes of recipes reside on the internet and can be found by using your favorite search engine. But websites come and go and passionate recipe collectors want to store their favorites in a safe place of their own. Recipe management software products for this purpose are available. Not only do they save and organize recipes, but they also offer other convenience features such as cookbook publication, managing your shopping list, and managing your pantry. Companion tools also exist for importing recipes into these products from text files, or while browsing the internet.[edit]See also Food portalCulinaryCulinary artCookbookRhyming recipehRecipe - a microformat for marking-up recipes in web pages[edit]References Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module onRecipes^ Jean Bott?ro, Textes culinaires M?sopotamiens, 1995. ISBN 0931464927; commentary at Society of Biblical Literature^ a b c d Andrew Dalby, Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, 2003. ISBN 0415232597 p. 97-98.^ "Roman food in Britain". Retrieved 2007-05-10.^ Renfrew, Jan (1996). Food and Cooking in Roman Britain. English Heritage. ISBN 1850740801.^ COMDA Calendar Co.. 2007 Recipe Calendar. COMDA, Canada.^ Hicatt, Constance B; Sharon Butler (1985). English Culinary Manuscripts of the 14C.^ Austin, Thomas (1888). Ashmole and other Manuscripts.^ Sieben, Ria Jansen (1588). Een notable boecxtken van cokeryen.^ anon (1588). The good Huswifes handmaid for Cookerie.^ May, Robert (1685). The accomplifht Cook.^ Judy Gerjuoy. "Medieval Cookbooks". Retrieved 2007-06-15.^ Cunningham, Marion (1979). The Fannie Farmer Cookbook (revised). Bantam Books, New York. ISBN 0553568817.^ Holmes, Elizabeth (2009-05-05). "Web Recipes Are Cooking With Gas". Wall Street Journal.^ "Startup Yummly like 'Google for food'". Reuters. 2010-11-24.Culinary artFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaChefs in training in Paris, France (2005).Chefs cooking with a wok in ChinaCulinary art is the art of preparing and cooking foods. The word "culinary" is defined as something related to, or connected with, cooking. A culinarion is a person working in the culinary arts. A culinarian working in restaurants is commonly known as a cook or a chef. Culinary artists are responsible for skillfully preparing meals that are as pleasing to the palate as to the eye. Increasingly they are required to have a knowledge of the science of food and an understanding of diet and nutrition. They work primarily in restaurants, fast food chain store franchises, delicatessens, hospitals and other institutions. Kitchen conditions vary depending on the type of business, restaurant, nursing home, etc.Contents [hide]1 Careers in culinary arts1.1 Related careers2 Occupational outlook3 Culinary colleges around the world3.1 Africa:3.2 Asia:3.3 Caribbean:3.4 Europe:3.5 Latin America:3.6 Middle East:3.7 North America:3.7.1 Canada:3.7.2 United States of America:3.8 Other:4 See also5 Notes6 References7 Further reading8 External links[edit]Careers in culinary arts[edit]Related careersBelow is a list of the wide variety of culinary arts occupations.Consulting and Design Specialists ? Work with restaurant owners in developing menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, and service protocols.Dining Room Service ? Manage a restaurant, cafeterias, clubs, etc. Diplomas and degree programs are offered in restaurant management by colleges around the world.Food and Beverage Controller ? Purchase and source ingredients in large hotels as well as manage the stores and stock control.Entrepreneurship ? Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries, restaurants, or specialty foods (such as (chocolates, cheese, etc.).Food and Beverage Managers ? Manage all food and beverage outlets in hotels and other large establishments.Food Stylists and Photographers ? Work with magazines, books, catalogs and other media to make food visually appealing.Food Writers and Food Critics ? Communicate with the public on food trends, chefs and restaurants though newspapers, magazines, blogs, and books. Notables in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne and James Beard.Research and Development Kitchens ? Develop new products for commercial manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications, restaurant chains, grocery chains, or others.Sales ? Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment relevant to food production and service.Instructors ? Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools, colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses (for example, the professional and recreational courses in baking at King Arthur Flour).[edit]Occupational outlookThe occupation outlook for chefs, restaurant managers, dietitians, and nutritionists is fairly good, with "as fast as the average" growth.[1] Increasingly a college education with formal qualifications is required for success in this field. It has been recorded that 54% of all culinary art professionals are female.[edit]Culinary colleges around the worldCooking utilizes many foods.[edit]Africa:School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, South Africa,Silwood School of Cookery, Les Commanderie Des Cordon Bleus, Rondebosch, Cape Town, South AfricaThe Fusion Cooking School, Westville, Durban, South Africa[edit]Asia:Hong Kong Culinary Academy, Penasia School of Continuing Education, Hong KongCulinary Academy of India, Hyderabad, IndiaUnited Hotel Management Academy, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaCilantro Culinary Academy, MalaysiaSchool of Hospitality, Tourism & Culinary Arts, KDU College, MalaysiaTaylor's University, School of Hospitality, Tourism & Culinary Arts, MalaysiaCebu Institute of Culinary Arts (CICA), Cebu City, PhilippinesPhilippine Women's University; Malate, Manila, West Traingle Quezon City, Calamba City Laguna and Santa Cruz, LagunaCenter for Asian Culinary Studies, San Juan City, Metro Manila, and in Davao City, PhilippinesCenter for Culinary Arts, Manila, PhilippinesColegio San Juan De Letran, Intramuros, Manila, PhilippinesDe La Salle-College of Saint Benilde School of Hotel Restaurant & Institution Management, Manila, PhilippinesDumaguete Academy for Culinary Arts (DACA), Dumaguete City, PhilippinesEnderun Colleges, Taguig City, PhilippinesGlobal Culinary & Hospitality Academy (GCHA), Ortigas Center, PhilippinesLa Consolacion College Manila School of HRM, PhilippinesLyceum of the Philippines University, Intramuros, Manila, PhilippinesMIHCA, Makati City, PhilippinesMindanao State University ? Iligan Institute of Technology School of HRM, Iligan City, PhilippinesPhilippine School of Culinary Arts, Cebu City, PhilippinesSt. Clare International Culinary, SM Fairview, Quezon City, PhilippinesInstitute of Technical Education (College West) - School of Hospitality, Singapore[edit]Caribbean:University of Technology, JamaicaInstituto de Banca y Comercio, Puerto RicoUniversidad del Este, Puerto Rico[edit]Europe:Apicius International School of Hospitality, Florence, ItalyLe Cordon Bleu, Paris, FranceCulinary Arts, Cork Institute of Technology(CIT) Cork, IrelandDCT University Center, Vitznau, SwitzerlandEcole H?teli?re du P?rigord, P?rigueux, France?cole des trois gourmandes, Paris, FranceHRC Culinary Academy, ScotlandInstitut Paul Bocuse, Ecully, FranceSchool of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, DIT, Dublin, IrelandScuola di Arte Culinaria Cordon Bleu, Florence, ItalyWestminster Kingsway College (London)University of West London (London)[edit]Latin America:Academia de Artes Culinarias de Guatemala, Guatemala.[edit]Middle East:International Centre for Culinary Arts, Dubai (ICCA Dubai)[edit]North America:[edit]Canada:Camosun College (Victoria, BC)Canadore College (North Bay, ON)Le Cordon Bleu Ottawa Culinary Arts Institute (Ottawa, ON)The Culinary Institute of Canada (Charlottetown, PE)Georgian College (Owen Sound, ON)George Brown College (Toronto, ON)Institut de tourisme et d'h?tellerie du Qu?bec (Montr?al, QC)Liaison College (several Ontario locations, including Barrie, Brampton, Hamilton, Kitchener, Oakville, and Toronto)Niagara Culinary Institute (Niagara College, Niagara-on-the-Lake, ON)Nova Scotia Community College (Nova Scotia)Pacific Institute of Culinary Arts (Vancouver, BC)Vancouver Community College (Vancouver, BC)[edit]United States of America:International Culinary Schools at The Art Institutes (Programs vary by school in North America)California School of Culinary Arts, Pasadena, CaliforniaCalifornia State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CaliforniaCalifornia State University Hospitality Management Education Initiative[2]Chattahoochee Technical College in Marietta, GeorgiaCooking and Hospitality Institute of ChicagoCoosa Valley Technical College; Rome, GACypress Community College Hotel, Restaurant Management, & Culinary Arts Program in Anaheim[3]Classic Cooking Academy, Scottsdale, ArizonaCulinary Institute of America in Hyde Park, NYCulinary Institute of America at Grey Stone in St. Helena, CaliforniaThe Culinary Institute of Charleston, South CarolinaL'Ecole Culinaire in Saint Louis, Missouri and Memphis, TennesseeInternational Culinary CenterInstitute for the Culinary Arts at Metropolitan Community College, Omaha, NebraskaJohnson and Wales University (RI,FL,NC,CO)Kendall College in Chicago, IllinoisLincoln College of TechnologyManchester Community College in ConnecticutNew England Culinary Institute in VermontOrlando Culinary AcademyPennsylvania Culinary InstituteThe Restaurant School at Walnut Hill College, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,Scottsdale Culinary InstituteSecchia Institute for Culinary Education: Grand Rapids Community College, Grand Rapids, MIThe Southeast Culinary and Hospitality College in Bristol, VirginiaSullivan University Louisville, KentuckyTexas Culinary Academy[edit]Other:Le Cordon Bleu (locations in 20 countries)[4][edit]See alsoAmerican Dietetic AssociationFoodpairingChefCuisineFood StudiesFoodingGastronomyGourmet Library and museumHospitality industryRestaurant[edit]ookbookFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaA cookbook is a kitchen reference that typically contains a collection of recipes. Modern versions may also include colorful illustrations and advice on purchasing quality ingredients or making substitutions. A wide variety of books cover cooking techniques for the home, recipes and comments by famous chefs, institutional kitchen manuals and cultural commentary situated in a larger community.Contents [hide]1 History2 Types of cookbooks3 Famous cookbooks4 Usage outside the world of food5 See also6 Notes7 References8 External links[edit]HistoryTitle page from an 18th century edition of Forme of Cury.The earliest cookbooks on record seem to be mainly lists of recipes for what would now be called haute cuisine, and were often written primarily to either provide a record of the author's favorite dishes or to train professional cooks for banquets and upper-class, private homes. Many of these cookbooks, therefore, provide only limited sociological or culinary value, as they leave out significant sections of ancient cuisine such as peasant food, breads, and preparations such as vegetable dishes too simple to warrant a recipe.The earliest collection of recipes that has survived in Europe is De re coquinaria, written in Latin. An early version was first compiled sometime in the 1st century and has often been attributed to the Roman gourmet Marcus Gavius Apicius, though this has been cast in doubt by modern research. An Apicius came to designate a book of recipes. The current text appears to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century; the first print edition is from 1483. It records a mix of ancient Greek and Roman cuisine, but with few details on preparation and cooking.[1] An abbreviated epitome entitled Apici Excerpta a Vinidario, a "pocket Apicius" by Vinidarius, "an illustrious man",[2] was made in the Carolingian era.[3] In spite of its late date it represents the last manifestation of the cuisine of Antiquity.The earliest cookbooks known in Arabic are those of al-Warraq (10th century) and al-Baghdadi (13th century).Huou, Kublai Khan's court chef, wrote a collection of recipes called "The Important Things to Know About Eating and Drinking" in the 13th century; it includes mainly soups as well as household advice.[4]After a long interval, the first recipe books to be compiled in Europe since Late Antiquity started to appear in the late thirteenth century. All told, about a hundred survive, mostly fragmentary, from the age before printing.[5] The earliest genuinely medieval recipes have been found in a Danish manuscript dating from around 1300, which in turn are copies of older texts that date back to the early 13th century or even earlier.[6] Low and High German manuscripts are among the most numerous. Among them is Daz buch von guter spise ("The Book of Good Food") written c. 1350 in W?rzberg and Kuchenmeysterey ("Kitchen Mastery"), the first printed German cook book from 1485.[7] Two French collections are probably the most famous: Le Viandier ("The Provisioner") was compiled in the late 14th century by Guillaume Tirel, master chef for two French kings; and Le Menagier de Paris ("The Householder of Paris"), a household book written by an anonymous middle class Parisian in the 1390s.[8] From Southern Europe there is the 14th century Catalan manuscript Libre de Sent Sov? ("The Book of Saint Sophia") and several Italian collections, notably the Venetian mid-14th century Libro per Cuoco,[9] with its 135 recipes alphabetically arranged. The printed De honesta voluptate ("On honourable pleasure"), first published in 1475, is one of the first cookbooks based on Renaissance ideals, and, though it is as much a series of moral essays as a cookbook, has been described as "the anthology that closed the book on medieval Italian cooking".[10] Recipes originating in England include the earliest recorded recipe for ravioli (1390s) and Forme of Cury, a late 14th century manuscript written by chefs of Richard II of England.[11][edit]Types of cookbooksCookbooks that serve as basic kitchen references (sometimes known as "kitchen bibles") began to appear in the early modern period. They provided not just recipes but overall instruction for both kitchen technique and household management. Such books were written primarily for housewives and occasionally domestic servants as opposed to professional cooks, and at times books such as The Joy of Cooking (USA), La bonne cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange (France), The Art of Cookery (UK, USA), Il cucchiaio d'argento (Italy), and A Gift to Young Housewives (Russia) have served as references of record for national cuisines. Related to this class are instructional cookbooks, which combine recipes with in-depth, step-by-step recipes to teach beginning cooks basic concepts and techniques. In vernacular literature, people may collect traditional recipes in family cookbooks.International and ethnic cookbooks fall into two categories: the kitchen references of other cultures, translated into other languages; and books translating the recipes of another culture into the languages, techniques, and ingredients of a new audience. The latter style often doubles as a sort of culinary travelogue, giving background and context to a recipe that the first type of book would assume its audience is already familiar with.Professional cookbooks are designed for the use of working chefs and culinary students and sometimes double as textbooks for culinary schools. Such books deal not only in recipes and techniques, but often service and kitchen workflow matters. Many such books deal in substantially larger quantities than home cookbooks, such as making sauces by the liter or preparing dishes for large numbers of people in a catering setting. While the most famous of such books today are books like Le guide culinaire by Escoffier or The Professional Chef by the Culinary Institute of America, such books go at least back to medieval times, represented then by works such as Taillevent's Viandier and Chiquart d'Ami?o's Du fait de cuisine.Single-subject books, usually dealing with a specific ingredient, technique, or class of dishes, are quite common as well; indeed, some imprints such as Chronicle Books have specialized in this sort of book, with books on dishes like curries, pizza, and simplified ethnic food. Popular subjects for narrow-subject books on technique include grilling/barbecue, baking, outdoor cooking, and even recipe cloning.Community cookbooks (also known as compiled, regional, charitable, and fund-raising cookbooks) are a unique genre of culinary literature. Community cookbooks focus on home cooking, often documenting regional, ethnic, family, and societal traditions, as well as local history.[12] Gooseberry Patch has been publishing community-style cookbooks since 1992 and built their brand on this community.Cookbooks can also document the food of a specific chef (particularly in conjunction with a cooking show) or restaurant. Many of these books, particularly those written by or for a well-established cook with a long-running TV show or popular restaurant, become part of extended series of books that can be released over the course of many years. Popular chef-authors throughout history include people such as Julia Child, James Beard, Nigella Lawson, Edouard de Pomiane, Jeff Smith, Emeril Lagasse, Claudia Roden, Madhur Jaffrey, Katsuyo Kobayashi, and possibly even Apicius, the semi-pseudonymous author of the Roman cookbook De re coquinaria, who shared a name with at least one other famous food figure of the ancient world.While western cookbooks usually group recipes for main courses by the main ingredient of the dishes, Japanese cookbooks usually group them by cooking techniques (e.g., fried foods, steamed foods, and grilled foods). Both styles of cookbook have additional recipe groupings such as soups, sweets.[edit]Famous cookbooksFamous cookbooks from the past, in chronological order, include:Thy manual of epic cookerie (early 4th centure) by Thomas GusyDe re coquinaria (The Art of Cooking) (late 4th / early 5th century) by ApiciusKitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Dishes) (10th century) by Ibn Sayyar al-WarraqKitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Dishes) (1226) by Muhammad bin Hasan al-BaghdadiLiber de Coquina (The Book of Cookery) (late 13th / early 14th century) by two unknown authors from France and ItalyThe Forme of Cury (14th century) by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of EnglandViandier (14th century) by Guillaume Tirel alias TailleventDe honesta voluptate et valetudine (1475) by Bartolomeo Platina - the first cookbook printed in a native language (Italian) in 1487The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Knight Opened by Kenelm Digby (1669)The Compleat Housewife (first American edition 1742) by Eliza SmithThe Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy (1747) by Hannah GlasseHjelpreda I Hush?llningen F?r Unga Fruentimber (1755) by Cajsa WargLe Cuisinier Royal (1817) by Alexandre ViardModern Cookery for Private Families (1845) by Eliza ActonMrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861) by Mrs BeetonEl Cocinero Puerto - Rique?o 1859 (author unknown)La scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiar bene (1891) by Pellegrino ArtusiThe Epicurean (1894) by Charles RanhoferThe Boston Cooking-School Cook Book (1896) by Fannie Merritt FarmerThe Settlement Cook Book (1901) and 34 subsequent editions by Lizzie Black KanderVarious cookbooks (between 1903 and 1934) by Auguste EscoffierThe Joy of Cooking (1931) by Irma RombauerLarousse Gastronomique (1938)The Alice B. Toklas Cookbook (1954) by Alice B. ToklasCooking with the Chinese Flavor (1956) and subsequent books by Lin Tsuifeng ("Mrs. Lin Yutang")Mastering the Art of French Cooking (1961) by Julia ChildHelen Gurley Brown's Single Girl's Cookbook (1969) by Helen Gurley BrownThe Fanny and Johnnie Cradock Cookery Programme (1970) by Fanny and Johnnie CradockDiet for a Small Planet (1971) by Frances Moore Lapp?Moosewood Cookbook (1978) by Mollie KatzenKosher By Design, a series of seven cookbooks published by ArtScroll from 2003?2010.[edit]Usage outside the world of foodThe term cookbook is sometimes used metaphorically to refer to any book containing a straightforward set of already tried and tested "recipes" or instructions for a specific field or activity, presented in detail so that the users who are not necessarily expert in the field can produce workable results. Examples include a set of circuit designs in electronics, a book of magic spells, or The Anarchist Cookbook, a set of instructions on destruction and living outside the law. O'Reilly Media publishes a series of books about computer programming named the Cookbook series, and each of these books contain hundreds of ready to use, cut and paste examples to solve a specific problem in a single programming language.[edit]See alsoFood writingGourmet Museum and Library[edit]Notes^ Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe, p. 6?7; Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe, pp. 85?86.^ About Vinidarius himself nothing is known; he may have been a Goth, in which case his Gothic name may have been Vinithaharjis.^ Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger, Apicius. A critical edition with an introduction and an English translation (Prospect Books) 2006 ISBN 1903018137, pp. 309-325^ Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. cookbook full text^ John Dickie, Delizia! The Epic History of the Italians and Their Food 2008, pp50f.^ Constance B. Hieatt, "Sorting Through the Titles of Medieval Dishes: What Is, or Is Not, a 'Blanc Manger'" in Food in the Middle Ages, pp. 32?33.^ Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe, p. 161, 182?83^ Adamson (2004), pp. 103, 107.^ Text printed in E. Faccioli, ed. Arte della cucina dal XIV al XIX secolo (Milan, 1966) vol. I, pp.61-105, analysed by John Dickie 2008, pp 50ff.^ Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe, p. 92.^ Constance B. Hieatt, "Medieval Britain" in Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe, p. 25.^ http://www.answers.com/topic/community-cookbooks Answers.com[edit]ReferencesAdamson, Melitta Weiss Food in Medieval Times. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. 2004. ISBN 0-313-32147-7Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays. Melitta Weiss Adamson (editor). Garland, New York. 1995. ISBN 0-8153-1345-4Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays. edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson (editor). Routledge, New York. 2002. ISBN 0-415-92994-6What?s the Recipe? - Our hunger for cookbooks., Adam Gopnik, The New Yorker, 2009.[edit]External links Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module onTable of Contents Wikisource has original text related to this article:CookbooksThe Food and Cookery Collection of the Fales Library at NYUBooks for Cooks - a learning resource on the history of cookery books from the British LibraryFeeding America at Michigan State University Digital Library -- a collection of influential early American cookbooks, including a large number of books specializing in immigrant cuisineHome Economics (including cookbooks) at Project GutenbergMenus and Cookbooks at The New York Public LibraryCategories: Food-related literary genres | CookbooksCuisineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (November 2008)Part of the Meals seriesCommon mealsBreakfast ? Brunch ? Lunch ? Tea ? Dinner ? SupperComponents & coursesAmuse-bouche ? Appetizer ? Cheese ? Dessert ? Drink ? Entr?e ? Entremet ? Fruit ? Main course ? Nuts ? Salad ? Side dishRelated conceptsBanquet ? Buffet ? Cuisine ? Eating ? Etiquette ? FoodCuisine (from French cuisine, "cooking; culinary art; kitchen"; ultimately from Latin coquere, "to cook") is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. It is often named after the region or place where its underlining culture is present. A cuisine is primarily influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine.[edit]HistoryThe foods and methods of preparation traditional to a region or population. The major factors shaping a cuisine are climate, which in large measure determines the native raw materials that are available to the cook; economic conditions, which regulate trade in delicacies and imported foodstuffs; and religious or sumptuary laws, under which certain foods are required or proscribed.Climate also affects the supply of fuel; the characteristic Chinese food preparation methods, in which food is cut into small pieces before being cooked, was shaped primarily by the need to cook food quickly to conserve scarce firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained important in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to the maintenance of an adequate food supply.World cuisine is traditionally divided into regions according to the common use of major foodstuffs, especially grains and cooking fats. In Central and South America, corn (maize), both fresh and dried, is the staple. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice becomes important. In Italy the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta and olive oil. China likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as important as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the lavish use of spices is characteristic; coconuts and seafood are used throughout the region both as foodstuffs and as seasonings.[edit]See also Food portal Drink portal Wine portal Beer portalMain article: Outline of cookingBouchonCulinary artsFoodieGourmetGourmet Museum and LibraryInternational English food termsList of cuisinesNational dishRestaurant[edit]Ancient Roman cuisineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is part of the seriesItalian cuisineHistory[show]Regions & cities[show]Foods[show]Dishes[show]Desserts[show]Wines[show]Beverages[show]See also[show] Italy portalv ? d ? eThis article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (April 2009)Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilization. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from kingdom to republic to empire, and empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning, the differences between social classes were not very great, but disparities developed with the empire's growth.Contents [hide]1 Meals1.1 Cena2 Table culture3 Entertainment4 Typical dishes4.1 The starter4.2 Main Courses4.3 Dessert5 Alcoholic drinks6 Sources for recipes and menus6.1 Early texts6.2 Modern recipe collections7 References8 Notes9 External links[edit]MealsApicius: De re coquinaria, frontispiece of 1709Traditionally in the morning, a breakfast called the ientaculum [1], was served; at dawn, Romans ate a small lunch, and in the evening, they consumed the cena [2] , the main meal of the day. Due to the influence of the Greeks and the increased importation and consumption of foreign foods, the cena increased in size and diversity and was consumed in the afternoon. The vesperna [3], a light supper in the evening, was abandoned, and a second breakfast was introduced around noon, the prandium.In the lower strata of society, the old routine was preserved, because it corresponded more closely to the daily rhythms of manual labor.Originally flat, round loaves made of emmer, (a cereal grain closely related to wheat) with a bit of salt were eaten; among the upper classes, eggs, cheese, and honey, along with milk and fruit were also consumed. In the Imperial period, around the beginning of the Christian era, bread made of wheat was introduced; with time, more and more wheaten foods began to replace emmer bread. The bread was sometimes dipped in wine and eaten with olives, cheese, crackers, and grapes. They also ate wild boar, beef, sausage and pork.[edit]CenaAmong the members of the upper classes, who did not engage in manual labor, it became customary to schedule all business obligations in the morning. After the prandium, the last responsibilities would be discharged, and a visit would be made to the baths. Around 2:00 pm. [4], the cena would begin. This meal could last until late in the night, especially if guests were invited, and would often be followed by a comissatio (a round of drinks).In the period of the kings and the early republic, but also in later periods (for the working classes), the cena essentially consisted of a kind of porridge, the puls. The simplest kind would be made from emmer, water, salt and fat. The more sophisticated kind was made with olive oil, with an accompaniment of assorted vegetables when available. The richer classes ate their puls with eggs, cheese, and honey and (only occasionally) with meat or fish.Over the course of the Republican period, the cena developed into 2 courses: a main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g. molluscs, shrimp). By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in 3 parts: 1st course (gustatio), main course (primae mensae), and dessert (secundae mensae).[edit]Table cultureFrom 301 BC, Greek customs started to influence the culture of higher class Romans. Growing wealth led to ever larger and more sophisticated meals. Nutritional value was not regarded as important: on the contrary, the gourmets preferred food with low food energy and nutrients. Easily digestible foods and diuretic stimulants were highly regarded.The dinner was consumed in a special dining room, which later was to be called triclinium. Here one would lie down on a specially designed couch, the lectus triclinaris. Around the round table, the mensa, three of these lecti were arranged in the shape of a horseshoe, so that slaves could easily serve, and a maximum of three diners would recline at each lectus. During the kingdom and early republic, the only people allowed a place on a lectus were men. By the late republic and imperial times, and especially among the aristocracy, women were permitted to recline during meals. Traditionally, women would dine sitting upright across from their husbands or fathers in chairs. More tables for the beverages stood beside the couches. All heads were oriented towards the central table, with left elbows propped on a cushion and feet at the outside of the dinnercouch. In this fashion at most nine people could dine together at one table. Further guests had to sit on chairs. Slaves normally had to stand.Feet and hands were washed before the cena. The food would be taken with the fingertips and two kinds of spoons, the larger ligula and the smaller cochlear with a needle thin grip, which was used as a prong when eating snails and molluscs, in practice substituting for the modern fork. At the table, larger pieces would be cut up to be served on smaller plates. After each course the fingers were washed again and napkins (mappae) were customary to wipe one's mouth. Guests could also bring their own mappae to take home the leftovers from the meal or small gifts (the apophoreta). Everything that could not be eaten (e.g. bones and shells) was thrown onto the floor, from where it was swept away by a slave.In summer, it was popular to eat outside. Many houses in Pompeii had stone couches at a particularly beautiful spot in the garden for just that purpose. People lay down to eat only on formal occasions. If the meal was routine, they ate while seated or even standing.[edit]EntertainmentDuring a dinner for guests, musicians, acrobats, poets or dancers would perform and dinner conversation played an important role. Dances were not usual, as it was considered improper and would not mix well with table manners, although during the comissatio this habit was often disregarded. To leave the table for bodily functions was considered inappropriate and restraining oneself was considered good manners. After the main course, during a pause, an offering was made to the Lares, the spirits of the house. This offering normally consisted of meat, cake and wine. The cake was usually colored with saffron.[edit]Typical dishes[edit]The starterThis part of the meal was called gustatio or promulsis. It generally consisted of light, appetizing dishes. The usual drink was mulsum (a mixture of wine and honey). At large feasts several starter dishes were served one after another.The usual salad and vegetable plants were:Pulses such as fava beans, chick peas, peas and lupins, although these were only appreciated by peasants, smiths, legionaries and gladiators; only lentils imported from Egypt were liked by the upper class.Several kinds of vegetables were usually enjoyed with vinegar, kale was cooked in saltpetre, and both the green and the white parts of chard were used.The leaves of many shrubs and weeds were cooked to a mush and strongly spiced; examples are elder, mallow, orache, fenugreek, nettles and sorrel.Pickled fruit and vegetables such as escarole, zucchini, olives, chicory, chard, cardoons, mallows, broccoli, asparagus, artichokes, leeks, carrots, turnips, parsnips, beets, peas, green beans, radishes, cauliflower, cabbage, lettuces and field greens, onions, cucumbers, fennel, melons, capers and cress were called acetaria and were thought to be appetising. Spinach and eggplant were not known until the 9th century. Tomatoes were not available.Mushrooms, such as boletus, field mushroom and truffles.Stewed and salted snails, raw or cooked clams, sea urchins and small fish.After the Republican period, light meat dishes were also served as starters. One example is dormice, which were bred in special enclosures before being fattened-up in clay pots called gliraria. Small birds like thrushes were also served.[edit]Main CoursesOften, an intermediate dish was served before the real caput cenae which was the dinner. The decoration of this dish could be more important than the actual ingredients.The main dish usually consisted of meat. The most common dishes were:Beef was not very popular. Cattle were working animals, used for such tasks as plowing or pulling carts, so their meat was usually very tough and had to be cooked for a long time to make it edible. Even calf meat was unpopular, with only a few recipes for it being known. Pork was the most usually eaten and best liked meat. All parts of the pig were eaten, and more unusual parts like the breasts and uteruses of young sows were considered specialties. Pig's ears were also a delicacy.Geese were bred and sometimes fattened. The technique of force-feeding was already known, and the liver of force-fed geese was a special delicacy, as it is today. Chicken was more expensive than duck. Other birds like Pavonem- Peacock and swans were eaten on special occasions. Capons and poulards (spayed hens) were considered specialties. In 161 BCE the consul C. Fannius prohibited the consumption of poulards, though the ban was ignored. Sausages, farcimen, were made of beef and pork according to an astonishing diversity of recipes and types. Particularly widespread was the botulus, a blood sausage somewhat like black pudding, and which was sold on the streets. The most popular type of sausage was the lucanica, a short, fat, rustic pork sausage, the recipe for which is still used today.For special effects, whole pigs were stuffed with sausages and fruit, roasted and then served on their feet. When cut, the sausages would spill from the animal like entrails. Such a pig was called a porcus Troianus ("Trojan pig"), a humorous reference to the Trojan Horse.Hares and rabbits were bred, the former with little success, making them as much as four times more expensive than rabbits. Hares therefore were regarded as a luxury; shoulder of hare was especially favoured. Newborn rabbits or rabbit fetuses, known as laurices, were considered a delicacy.Fish was served only in earlier periods, and it remained more expensive than simpler meat types. Breeding was attempted in freshwater and saltwater ponds, but some kinds of fish could not be fattened in captivity. Among these was the most popular, mullus, the goatfish. At a certain time this fish was considered the epitome of luxury, above all because its scales exhibit a bright red color when it dies out of water. For this reason these fish were occasionally allowed to die slowly at the table. There even was a recipe where this would take place in garo, in the sauce. At the beginning of the imperial era, however, this custom suddenly came to an end, which is why mullus in the feast of Trimalchio (see the Satyricon) could be shown as a characteristic of the parvenu, who bores his guests with an unfashionable display of dying fish.There were no side dishes or accompaniments in today's sense, although bread was consumed by all classes following the introduction of wheat. Thereafter only the poorest, with no access to an oven, had to continue eating puls. Bread, which existed in a large number of different varieties, quickly became exceptionally popular and public bakeries were established in Rome from 270 AD.Garum, also known as liquamen, was the universal sauce added to everything. It was prepared by subjecting salted fish, in particular mackerel intestines, to a very slow thermal process. Over the course of two to three months, in an enzymatic process stimulated by heating, usually by exposure to the sun, the protein-laden fish parts decomposed almost entirely. The resulting mass was then filtered and the liquid traded as garum, the remaining solids as alec - a kind of savoury spread. Because of the smell it produced, the production of garum within the city was banned. Garum, supplied in small sealed amphorae, was used throughout the Empire and totally replaced salt as a condiment. Today similar sauces are produced in Southeast Asia, usually sold abroad under the description "fish sauce", or nam pla.Spices, especially pepper, but hundreds of other kinds too, were imported on a large scale and used copiously. One very popular spice was silphium; however, as it could not be cultivated it finally became extinct through overcropping of the wild plant. The inherent flavours of vegetables and meat were completely masked by the heavy use of garum and other seasonings. It was considered an indication of the highest achievement in culinary art if a gourmet could tell neither by sight, nor smell, nor taste what the ingredients of a dish were.[citation needed][edit]DessertStill life with fruit basket and vases (Pompeii, ca. A.D. 70)Among fruits, grapes were the most preferred. The Romans distinguished between grapes for wine-making and grapes as food. Raisins were also produced. After grapes, figs and dates played a major part and pomegranates were eaten in many varieties. Quinces, figs, dates, grapes, pomegranates, various types of apples, apricots, peaches, cherries, pears, plums, currants, strawberries, blackberries, medlars, elderberries, mulberries, azaroles, citron, raspberries, and melons were grown. Lemons were known from the 1st century AD, but not cultivated extensively. The Romans ate walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts and pine nuts. Roman bakers were famous for the many varieties of breads, rolls, fruit tarts, sweet buns and cakes.Cold clams and oysters (bred on a large scale), which were originally dessert dishes, later became starters.Cakes, made of wheat and usually soaked in honey, played a big part. Certain kinds of nuts were also available, and they were thrown at festivals much as sweets are today.[edit]Alcoholic drinksSee also: Ancient Rome and wineA modern re-creation of Conditum ParadoxumA re-creation of the Moretum recipeWine was normally mixed with water immediately before drinking, since the fermentation was not controlled and the alcohol grade was high. Wine was sometimes adjusted and "improved" by its makers: instructions survive for making white wine from red and vice versa, as well as for rescuing wine that is turning to vinegar. Wine was also variously flavoured. For example, there was passum, a strong and sweet raisin wine, for which the earliest known recipe is of Carthaginian origin; mulsum, a freshly made mixture of wine and honey; and conditum, a mixture of wine, honey and spices made in advance and matured. One specific recipe, Conditum Paradoxum, is for a mixture of wine, honey, pepper, laurel, dates, mastic, and saffron, cooked and stored for later use. Another recipe called for the addition of seawater, pitch and rosin to the wine. A Greek traveler reported that the beverage was apparently an acquired taste.[5] Beer (cervesa) was known but considered vulgar. Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (posca) was a popular drink for the lower classes and a staple part of the Roman soldier's ration.[edit]Sources for recipes and menus[edit]Early textsApicius, a Roman cookery bookAthenaeus of Naucratis, [Deipnosophistae] (The Deipnosophists=The Banquet of the Philosophers). Written in Rome in the early 3rd century AD.Cato: De Agri Cultura ("On Farming") with recipes for farm productsColumella: De Agricultura book 12, with recipes for conservesMoretum, poem containing a recipePetronius: "Cena Trimalchionis" (The feast of Trimalchio), a section of the Satyricon: satirical sketch of a feast at the home of a rich former slave in the early imperial periodVinidarius: brief late Roman recipe collection[edit]Modern recipe collectionsDalby, Andrew; Grainger, Sally (1995), The Classical Cookbook, London: British Museum Press, ISBN 0714122084Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003; paperback, Chicago: Univesty of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-23347-5.Mark Grant, Roman cookery: ancient recipes for modern kitchens. London: Serif, 1999.Ilaria Gozzini Giacosa, A Taste of Ancient Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-226-29032-4.Sally Grainger, Cooking Apicius: Roman recipes for today. Totnes: Prospect Books, 2006.Grocock, Christopher; Grainger, Sally (2006), Apicius. A critical edition with an introduction and an English translation, Totnes: Prospect Books, ISBN 1903018137 [includes Vinidarius]Eugenia Salza Prina Ricotti, Dining as a Roman emperor: how to cook ancient Roman recipes today. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider, 1995.[edit]ReferencesJacques Andr?, L'alimentation et la cuisine ? Rome. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1981.N. Blanc, A. Nercessian, La cuisine romaine antique. Grenoble: Gl?nat, 1992.Dalby, Andrew (2003), Food in the ancient world from A to Z, London, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0415232597Dalby, Andrew (2000), Empire of Pleasures, London, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0415186242Antonietta Dosi, Fran?ois Schnell, A tavola con i Romani antichi. Rome: Quasar, 1984.L. Hannestad, Mad og drikke i det antikke Rom. Copenhagen, 1979.Nico Valerio, La tavola degli antichi. Milan: Mondadori, 1989.[edit]Notes^ Artman,John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit",page 26, Good Apple, 1991.^ Artman,John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit",page 26, Good Apple,1991.^ Artman,John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit",page 26, Good Apple,1991.^ Guy,John:"Roman Life",page 8, Ticktock Publishing LTD,1998.^ Erdoes, Richard. 1000 Remarkable Facts about Booze. New York: The Rutledge Press, 1981, p. 88.[edit]External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ancient Roman foodInstructions to prepare a 5 courses ancient Roman banquetEight recipes for an ancient Roman dinnerresourcesforhistory.com: Food in Roman BritainPicture of a Pompeii bakeryTaboo food and drinkFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about practices and beliefs in relation to various animals as food. For more discussion on religious views, see Unclean animals.It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Unclean animals. (Discuss)Swine are considered treif (unfit or unclean) in Judaism and haraam (forbidden) in Islam.Taboo food and drink are food and beverages which people abstain from consuming for religious, cultural or hygienic reasons. Many food taboos forbid the meat of a particular animal, including mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, bony fish, and crustaceans. Some taboos are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while other taboos forgo the consumption of plants, fungi, or insects.Food taboos can be defined as rules, codified or otherwise, about which foods or combinations of foods may not be eaten and how animals are to be slaughtered. The origins of these prohibitions and commandments are varied. In some cases, these taboos are a result of health considerations or other practical reasons.[1] In others, they are a result of human symbolic systems.[2] Some foods may be prohibited during certain festivals (e.g. Lent), at certain times of life (e.g. pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g. priests), although the food is in general permissible.Contents [hide]1 Causes2 Taboo food2.1 Amphibians and reptiles2.2 Bats2.3 Bears2.4 Birds2.5 Camels2.6 Cats2.7 Cattle2.8 Crustaceans and other seafood2.9 Deer and ungulates2.10 Dogs2.11 Elephants2.12 Fish2.13 Fungi2.14 Guinea pig and related rodents2.15 Horses and other equines2.16 Insects2.17 Living animals2.18 Offal2.19 Pigs/Pork2.20 Rabbit2.21 Rats and mice2.22 Snails2.23 Vegetables2.24 Whales2.25 Primates2.25.1 Human meat2.26 Animal fetus3 Taboo drinks3.1 Alcohol3.2 Blood3.3 Coffee and tea3.4 Human breast milk4 Salt5 Genetically modified foods taboo6 See also7 Notes8 References9 External links[edit]CausesVarious religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, Judaism prescribes a strict set of rules, called Kashrut, regarding what may and may not be eaten. Islam has similar laws, dividing foods into haraam (forbidden) and halal (permitted). Jains often follow religious directives to observe vegetarianism. Hinduism has no specific proscriptions against eating meat, but Hindus apply the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and largely practise forms of vegetarianism.[3]Aside from formal rules, there are cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. One cause is the classification of a food as famine food ? the association of a food with famine, and hence association of the food with hardship. Within a given society, some meats will be considered taboo simply because they are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff, not necessarily because the meat is considered repulsive in flavor, aroma, texture or appearance. (Dog meat is eaten, in certain circumstances, in Korea, Vietnam, and China, although it is nowhere a common dish.) Similarly, horse meat is rarely eaten in the Anglosphere, although it is part of the national cuisine of countries as widespread as Kazakhstan, Japan, and France.In some instances, a food taboo may only apply to certain parts of an animal.Sometimes food taboos enter national or local law, as with the ban on cattle abattoirs in most of India, and horse slaughter in the United States. Even after reversion to Chinese rule, Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, imposed in colonial times.Environmentalism, ethical consumerism and other activist movements are giving rise to new taboos and eating guidelines. A fairly recent addition to cultural food taboos is the meat and eggs of endangered species or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include some species of whales, sea turtles, and migratory birds.Similarly, sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification consider certain seafoods to be taboo due to unsustainable fishing. Organic certification prohibits most synthetic chemical inputs during food production, or genetically modified organisms, irradiation, and the use of sewage sludge. The Fair Trade movement and certification discourage the consumption of food and other goods produced in exploitative working conditions. Other social movements generating taboos include Local Food and The 100-Mile Diet, both of which encourage abstinence from non-locally produced food, and veganism, in which adherents endeavour not to use or consume animal products of any kind.[edit]Taboo food[edit]Amphibians and reptilesA bag of frog legs from Vietnam.Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of amphibians, such as frogs, and reptiles, such as crocodiles and snakes. In other cultures, foods such as frog legs and alligator are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are raised commercially.[edit]BatsIn Judaism the Deuteronomic Code and Priestly Code explicitly prohibit the bat.[4]Bat meat is known to be a prized delicacy within the Batak and Minahasa minority communities of Indonesia.[edit]BearsBears are not considered kosher animals in Judaism while all predatory terrestrial animals are forbidden in Islam. Observant Jews and Muslims therefore abstain from eating bear meat.[5][6][edit]BirdsThe Hebrew Bible (Leviticus 11:13[7]) explicitly states that the eagle, vulture, and osprey are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the ostrich, is explicitly banned as food in Leviticus 11:16.[8]In Islam the birds that are halal must have feathers and not be a bird of prey (which follows from Islam's general prohibition on eating non-aquatic carnivores).In North America, while pigeons (as doves), sometimes known as squab, are a hunted game bird,[9][10][11][12] urban pigeons are considered unfit for consumption. Swan was at one time a dish reserved for royalty. The English custom of Swan Upping derives from this period.[13] In more modern times, swans have been protected in parts of Europe and the United States, making swan unavailable. Reports about the eating of swans are seen from time to time.[14][15]Scavengers and carrion-eaters such as vultures and crows are avoided as food in many cultures because they are perceived as carriers of disease and unclean, and associated with death. An exception is the rook which was a recognised country dish, and which has in more recent times been served in a Scottish restaurant in London.[16] In Western cultures today, most people regard songbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food. In addition, some migratory birds are protected internationally by the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds.[edit]CamelsDromedary camelThe eating of a camel is strictly prohibited by the Torah in Deuteronomy 14:6-7.[17] Although the camel is a cud-chewer, the Torah still considered it "unclean". While the foot of a camel is split into two toe-like structures, this passage explicitly states that the camel does not meet the cloven hoof criterion.The eating of camel is allowed in Islam, and indeed is traditional in the Islamic heartland in Saudi Arabia and the Arabian Peninsula more generally. The hump in particular is considered a delicacy and eaten on special occasions, including religious festivals.[edit]Cats? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)Main article: Cat meatCat meat is eaten in China and Vietnam. In desperate times, people of other areas have been known to resort to cooking and eating cats. Cat meat was eaten, for example, during the famine in the Siege of Leningrad. In 1996, a place that served cat meat was supposedly discovered by the Argentine press in a shanty town in Rosario, but in fact the meal had been set up by media from Buenos Aires.In 2008, it was reported that cats were a staple part of the local diet Guangdong, China, with many cats being shipped down from the north and one Guangzhou-based business receiving up to 10,000 cats per day from different parts of China.[18] Protesters in other parts of China have urged the Guangdong provincial government to crack down on cat traders and restaurants that serve cat meat, although no law says it is illegal to eat cats.[19]The term "roof-hare" (roof-rabbit, German Dachhase) applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another small mammal used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hare and cat carcasses appear similar. The only way to distinguish them is by looking at the processus hamatus of the feline scapula, which should have a processus suprahamatus. Dar gato por liebre ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is an expression common to many Spanish-speaking countries, equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone's eyes" derived from this basic scam. There is an equivalent Portuguese expression Comprar gato por lebre, meaning "to buy a cat as a hare". More specifically, in Brazil, cat meat is seen as repulsive and people often shun barbecue establishments suspected of selling cat meat. The expression churrasco de gato ("cat barbecue") is largely used in Brazil with a humorous note, especially for roadside stands that offer grilled meat on a stick (often coated with farofa), due to their poor hygiene conditions and the fact that the source of the meat is mostly unknown. "Kitten cakes" and "buy three shawarma - assemble a kitten" are common Russian urban jokes about the suspect origin of food from street vendors' stalls.The inhabitants of Vicenza in northern Italy are reputed to eat cats, although the practice has been out of use for decades.[20] In February 2010, a popular Italian gastronome was criticized and suspended from a show for talking about the former practice of eating cat stew in Tuscany.[21][22]During the so called Bad Times of hunger in Europe during and after World War I and World War II roof-rabbit was a common food.[23] Those who thought that they were eating Australian Rabbits[24] were really eating European cats.Some restaurants in the Hai Phong and H? Long Bay area in north Vietnam advertise cat meat hot pot as "little tiger", and cats in cages can be seen inside.[25][edit]Cattle? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)Main article: Cattle in religionIn Hinduism, the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, selfless giving and a full earthly life.Many Hindus, particularly Brahmins, are vegetarian, abstaining from eating meat. Even those Hindus who do eat meat abstain from the consumption of beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in Hinduism. Consumption of beef is taboo out of respect for the cow. The taboo does not extend to dairy products. Quite the contrary, dairy items such as milk, yogurt and particularly ghee are highly revered and used in holy ceremonies. Cow milk was the nearest substitute of mother's milk for orphaned new-born babies before the advent of modern medicine, when many pregnant women would die in the birthing process. Also, cow dung is applied as antiseptic floor covering, it is a natural fertilizer for farmland and also used as fuel. Cow urine is used for its medicinal properties in Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine). The cow proved to be a very useful animal in traditional Indian lifestyle, this respect led to abstaining from killing cows for food.By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle (i.e. cows) is banned in almost all Indian states except Goa, Kerala, West Bengal and the seven north eastern states.[26] Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for Hindus.Many Zoroastrians do not eat beef, because of the cow that saved Zoroaster's life from murderers when Zoroaster was a baby. Actual Pahlavi texts state that Zoroastrians should be fully vegetarian.Some ethnic Chinese may also refrain from eating cow meat, because many of them feel that it is wrong to eat an animal that was so useful in agriculture. Some Chinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. A similar taboo can be seen among Sinhalese Buddhists, who consider it to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to many Sinhalese people.[edit]Crustaceans and other seafoodBlue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, for sale at a market in Piraeus.? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)Almost all types of non-piscine seafood, such as shellfish, lobster, shrimp or crawfish, are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have both fins and scales.[27]As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the four madh'hab of Sunni Islam. However, the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence, which is followed by most Shia Muslims, generally prohibits non-piscine seafood (with the exception of shrimp) on more or less the same grounds as (and possibly by analogy with) Kashrut.[edit]Deer and ungulatesCaribou or reindeer is popular as a dish in Alaska, Norway, Sweden, Finland (especially saut?ed reindeer), Russia and Canada, but is unusual in the United Kingdom and Ireland. This may relate to the popular culture myth of the reindeer as assistant to Father Christmas ("eating Rudolph"), as opposed to the "cows of the north" vision of the northern countries.[28][29][30]Swedish astronaut Christer Fuglesang was not allowed to bring dried reindeer with him on-board a shuttle mission as it was unthinkable for the Americans so soon before Christmas. He had to go with moose instead.[31][32][edit]Dogs? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)Main article: Dog meatDog meat advertised as a "Guizhou specialty" in Hubei, People's Republic of China.Generally in all Western countries eating dog or cat meat is considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. However, dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of Frederick the Great, and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton."[33] In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common.[34] In 1937, a meat inspection law targeted against trichinella was introduced for pigs, dogs, boars, foxes, badgers, and other carnivores.[35] Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986.[36] In some rural areas of Poland, dog fat is by tradition believed to have medicinal properties - being good for the lungs for instance[citation needed]. In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near Czestochowa was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down into smalec - lard.[37]According to the ancient Hindu scriptures (cf. Manusm?ti and medicinal texts like Sushruta Samhita), dog's meat was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws;[38] therefore, both of those religious traditions also forbid its consumption.Australian Aborigines traditionally had personal totems. In Irish mythology, legend recounts how C? Chulainn, the great hero of Ulster, was presented with a Morton's fork, forcing him to either break his taboo about eating dog meat (his name means Culann's Hound) or break his taboo about declining hospitality; Cuchulain chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death.In Mexico during the pre-Columbian era a hairless dog named xoloitzcuintle was commonly eaten.[39] After colonization, this custom stopped.In Southeast Asia, most countries excluding Vietnam rarely consume dog meat either because of Islamic or Buddhist values or animal rights as in the Philippines. Manchus have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring Northeastern Asian peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur.Dog meat is used as food in parts of China (e.g. Guangxi), as a normal, staple item.[edit]ElephantsIn Western societies, elephants have often been associated with circuses and used for entertaining purposes. However, in Central and West Africa, elephants are hunted for their meat.[40] Some people in Thailand also believe that eating elephant meat improves their sex lives and elephants are sometimes hunted specifically for this.[41][42]Judaism and Islam prohibits consumption of elephant meat as an unfit-for-consumption land animal.[edit]FishSpeak not to me with a mouth that eats fish?Somali nomad taunt[43]Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.[44][45]There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.[45][46] The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.[45]There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.[45]Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13[47]). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfishes and sharks are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni madh'hab, but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.[48][49][50]Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navaho, Apache, and Zu?i, have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals, including waterfowl.[51][edit]FungiMembers of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness abstain from fungi and all vegetables of the onion family (Alliaceae). They believe that these excite damaging passions.[52] Fungi are eschewed as they grow at night.In Iceland and rural parts of Sweden, although not taboo, fungi were not widely eaten before the Second World War. It was considered a food for cows and was also associated with the stigma of being a wartime and famine food.[edit]Guinea pig and related rodentsRoast guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) in PeruGuinea pigs, or cuy, are a significant part of the diet in Peru and among some populations in the highlands of Ecuador, mostly in the Andes highlands.[53] Cuyes can be found on the menu of most restaurants in Lima and other cities in Peru. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations.[54][55]In 2004, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in Flushing Meadows Park.[56] New York State allows for the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.[57]The guinea pig's close rodent cousins, capybara and paca, are consumed as food in South America. The Catholic Church's restriction on eating meat during Lent does not apply to the capybara, as early missionaries gave a faulty description to the Pope, leading him to declare it a fish.[58][59][edit]Horses and other equines? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007)Main article: Horse meatSee also: Horse slaughterSmoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.Horse meat is part of the cuisine of countries as widespread as Italy with 900 g per person per year, Netherlands, Belgium, France, Switzerland, where horse meat is common in supermarkets, Germany with only 50 g per person per year, Polynesia[citation needed], Serbia[citation needed], Slovenia[citation needed] and Kazakhstan[citation needed], but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by Jewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves.Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of Christianity. In 732, Pope Gregory III instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the pagan practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom".[60] The Christianisation of Iceland in 1000 AD was achieved only when the Church promised that Icelanders could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued.[61] Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, lamb and pork.Horse meat is generally taboo in the Anglosphere. In Canada, horse meat is legal, but there is only really a market?and that a small one?in the French-speaking province of Quebec, where the taboo is not so strong, and in a few (mostly French) restaurants elsewhere. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to Continental Europe or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in California and Illinois.[62] However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. In the UK, this strong taboo includes banning horse meat from commercial pet food and DNA testing of some types of salami suspected of containing donkey meat.Horse meat is also avoided in the Balkans, as horse is considered to be a noble animal, or because eating horse meat is associated with war time famine.In Sahih al-Bukhari, one of the major Sunni Hadith collections, the Hadith of prohibition of Mut'ah at Khaybar says that the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, forbade the eating of a donkey and allowed the eating of horse,[63] but the general applicability of this Hadith is unclear.[edit]Insects? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)See also: Entomophagy and Category:Insects as foodExcept for certain locusts and related species, insects are not considered Kosher foods; dietary laws also require that practitioners check food carefully for insects.[64] In Islam locusts are considered lawful food along with fish that do not require ritual slaughtering.Western taboos against insects as a food source generally do not apply to honey (concentrated nectar which has been regurgitated by bees). For example, honey is considered kosher even though honey bees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the Talmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not make the honey, the flower does, and it is only stored in bees.Many vegans avoid honey as they would any other animal product. Some vegans disagree with avoiding honey, on the grounds that nearly all plants are propagated by insects or birds, and the harvesting of them would be similarly exploitative.[edit]Living animals? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)Raw oysters, which are still alive, presented on a plate.Ikizukuri, live fish served as sashimi.Islamic and Judaic law (including Noahide Law) forbids any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4,[65] as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a.[66]) Judaism restricts this prohibition to land animals and birds; fish?which does not require kosher slaughter?can technically be eaten while the fish is still alive.Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include "raw oyster on the half shell" (also called "shooters") and ikizukuri (live fish). Sashimi using live animals has been banned in some countries. Ikizukuri of fish with scales would be acceptable under this law of kashrut, but prohibited under the law forbidding unnecessary pain to animals.Another example occurs in Shanghai, China, and surrounding areas, live shrimp is a common dish served both in homes and restaurants. The shrimp are usually served in a bowl of alcohol, which makes the shrimp sluggish and complacent.[edit]OffalHeads, brains, trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the well-known steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom. Haggis has been Scotland's national dish since the time of Robert Burns. In northeast Brazil there is a similar dish to haggis called "buchada", made with goats intestine.[67][68] The French eat calf's brains.In Australia, Canada and the United States, on the other hand, many people are squeamish about eating offal. In these countries, organ meats that are considered edible in other cultures are more often regarded as fit only for processing into pet food under the euphemism "meat by-products". Except for heart, tongue (beef), liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, tripe as menudo or mondongo among Latinos, chitterlings in the Southern United States, fried-brain sandwiches in the Midwest, and beef testicles called Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west.In some regions, such as the European Union, brains and other organs which can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the food chain as specified risk materials.Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain rennet) for turning milk into cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a chemical process with artificial rennet. This means that the process by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed.[edit]Pigs/PorkMain article: Religious restrictions on the consumption of porkUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reports pork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden among Muslims, Jews, certain Christian denominations, such as Seventh-day Adventists, and some others. There are various hypotheses concerning the origins of this taboo (e.g. Qur'an 16:115,[69] biblical injunctions in Leviticus 11:7-8[70] and Deuteronomy 14:8),[71] but none have been universally accepted.In the 19th century some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina. Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require far more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.A common explanation to the fact that pigs are widely considered unclean in the Middle East is that they are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, horses, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.Another explanation with no proof behind it is that pig is considered unclean as many of its internal organs bear a striking resemblance to human organs.[edit]RabbitCottontail rabbitThe book of Leviticus in the Bible classifies the rabbit as unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants).[72][73][74] Further possibilities against the consumption of rabbit may also include the phenomenon known as rabbit starvation, a form of acute malnutrition caused by excess consumption of any lean meat (specifically rabbit) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients. The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam but forbidden for Shia Islam.[75][edit]Rats and miceThis section does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)In most Western cultures, rats and mice are considered either unclean vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of plague. However, rats are commonly eaten in rural Thailand, Vietnam and other parts of Indochina. Cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) and some species of field mice are a rich source of protein in Africa. Bamboo rats are also commonly eaten in the poorer parts of Southeast Asia.In Ghana, Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) as "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert.[76] In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of monkeypox, an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.[77]Historically, rats and mice have also been eaten in the West during times of shortage or emergency, such as during the Siege of Vicksburg and the Siege of Paris. Dormice were also domesticated and raised for food in Ancient Rome. In some Asian countries, mice are eaten, and go by the name of vole. In France, rats bred in the wine stores of Gironde were cooked with the fire of broken wine barrels and eaten, dubbed as cooper's entrec?te. In some communities the muskrat (which is not a rat at all) is hunted for its meat (and fur) (e.g. some parts of Flanders); see also under "Fish" for consumption of beaver tails. Nutria, another large rodent, has been hunted or raised for food in the United States.[78]Handling and eating rat runs the risk of Weil's disease. Among the British SAS regiment, the only species of meat that they are forbidden to eat is rat.[edit]SnailsLand snails have been eaten for thousands of years, beginning in the Pleistocene. They are especially abundant in Capsian sites in North Africa, but are also found throughout the Mediterranean region in archaeological sites dating between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago.[79][80] They are also considered a delicacy in China and in several Asian countries, as well as in France, Italy, Greece and other Mediterranean countries. However, in Britain, Ireland, and the United States, eating land snails is sometimes seen as disgusting. Some English-speaking commentators have used the French word for snails, escargot, as an alternative word for snails, particularly snails for consumption.Sea snails (for example periwinkles) and even freshwater snails (for example nerites) are also eaten in various parts of the world.As they are molluscs, snails are not kosher.[edit]VegetablesIn certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, vegetables of the onion genus are taboo. Among Hindus many people discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or Hindu holy months of Shrawan and Kartik. However, discouraging onion and garlic is not so much popular among Hindus as compared to non-vegetarian foods and many people are leaving this custom.Jains not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also don't eat root vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in ahimsa (that is, respect for living beings).Chinese Buddhist cuisine traditionally prohibits garlic, Allium chinense, asafoetida, shallot, and Allium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek), while Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as black pepper and chili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.In Yazidism, the eating of lettuce and butter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims and Christians. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of Mosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.The followers of Pythagoras were vegetarians. "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". however, their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the flatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potential favism, but most likely for magico-religious reasons.[81][82]Vegetables like broccoli, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as blackberries and raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they can not be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.[83]The common Egyptian dish mulukhiyah, a soup whose primary ingredient is jute leaves (which leaves did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied specifically to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis.[84] While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.Although it might not be a taboo in a strictest sense, older Germans might not eat swede (Swedish turnip, rutabaga), as they see it as a "famine food", not for general consumption. This taboo existed from the 1916-17 famine Steckr?benwinter (Rutabaga winter) when Germany, already drained by World War I's endless Western Front, had one of the worst winters in memory, where often the only food available was Swedish turnips. This led a distaste to the vegetable which still continues today with the older generations having had experiences from World War II or having had a childhood with parents talking about the aforementioned famine. However, in recent years this taboo has been vanishing as Germans have re-discovered many traditional or local cooking recipes, including those including swede, such as Steckr?beneintopf. One reason for this, is a trend to traditional and organic cuisine. Also for most Germans in 2008, the "Steckr?benwinter" famine from 1916-17 is history and has no more relevance on today's choice of food and dish.[edit]WhalesThis section does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)Main article: Whale meatInuit Muktuk or raw whale blubber, rich in Vitamin C and Vitamin D.The International Whaling Commission passed a moratorium on commercial whaling on July 23, 1982 that came into force for the 1985-86 season.Norway resumed commercial whaling of minke whales in 1993 and it is still a popular meat, especially on Norway's western coast. Once considered an inexpensive substitute for beef, whale meat is now a highly priced delicacy. Iceland resumed commercial whaling in 2006. Japan's whaling is officially done for research purposes. This is specifically sanctioned under IWC regulations that also specifically require that whale meat be fully utilized upon the completion of research. Many international scientific and environmentalist groups, notably Greenpeace argue that the killing is not necessary to conduct the research.The United States Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 prohibits, with certain exceptions, the taking of marine mammals in United States waters and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and the importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the U.S. Despite the general ban on whale hunting in the United States and Canada, some indigenous groups are allowed to hunt for cultural reasons.Whale meat was eaten in Britain during World War II, but it was never popular.Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales as there is a famous hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such.[85][edit]PrimatesThe consumption of monkeys and apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, mandrills and guenons is quite common in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa.[86][87][88][89]Bonobos (also known as pygmy chimpanzees), have been extensively hunted in Congo to the level that they are now considered an endangered species. In certain parts of Congo the hands and feet of gorillas are regarded as a delicacy and are served to special guests.[87]Monkeys, especially monkey brains, are also eaten in Southeast Asia (especially Indonesia).[90] The consumption of primates may be considered to be too close to human cannibalism due to the similarity of our own species.[citation needed] The similarity increases the danger of viruses. Most of it is "bushmeat" or caught from the wild, in areas of high primate populations such as Central Africa and Southeast Asia. One of the major theories for the origin of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in humans is the butchering of primates infected with the similar simian immunodeficiency virus.[91][92][93][edit]Human meat? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)Main article: CannibalismOf all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most proscribed. In recent times humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger ? never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.[94] This consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Islam (Qur'an 16:115[69]) and Hinduism.[95] Catholics and Orthodox Christians do not view themselves as engaging in cannibalism when taking communion, as it is believed that although the bread and wine become of the same substance as the body and blood of Christ before being consumed, they remain bread and wine in all ways to the senses.[96][97] Catholics refer to this as transubstantiation; the Orthodox believe the transformation occurs, but hesitate to attempt a description of the mechanism. Protestants and other Christian denominations do not believe that transubstantiation occurs at all.[98] The Old Testament and Jewish Torah warn that if God's commandments are not obeyed then the Israelites will suffer from famine so severe that they might become hungry enough to eat even their own children.[99]It used to be required in certain tribes; the Fore people of Papua New Guinea were particularly well-studied in their eating of the dead, because it led to kuru, a disease believed to be transmitted by prions.Very few people customarily eat the placenta after the baby's birth, but those who advocate placentophagy in humans (mostly in modern America and Europe, Mexico, Hawaii, China, and the Pacific Islands) believe that eating the placenta prevents postpartum depression and other pregnancy complications.See also: Donner Party, Alferd Packer, Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, and Martin Hartwell[edit]Animal fetus This section requires expansion.Main article: Kutti piMain article: Balut (egg)[edit]Taboo drinks[edit]AlcoholSee also: Christianity and alcohol and Islam and alcoholSome religions?including Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, Rastafari movement, Bah?'? Faith, and various branches of Christianity such as the Methodists, the Latter-day Saints, Seventh Day Adventists and the Iglesia ni Cristo ? forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Jehovah's Witnesses have no prohibition and only encourage moderation.[100]The Hebrew Bible describes a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:1-21[101]) that includes abstinence from alcohol (specifically wine and probably barley beer[102]), although there is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the Temperance movement.[edit]Blood? The template below (Ref improve section) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.?This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)See also: Blood as foodA bowl of dinuguanSome religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is salted to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus,[103] that since "the life of the animal is in the blood", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. Iglesia ni Cristo and Jehovah's Witnesses prohibit eating or drinking any blood.[104]According to the Bible blood is only to be used for special/sacred purposes in connection with worship (Exodus chapters 12, 24, 29, Matthew 26:29 and Hebrews[105]). In the first century, Christians, both former Jews (the Jewish Christians), and new Gentile converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of Mosaic law were to be retained and upheld by them. The apostles decided that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things;That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.?King James Version ? Acts, 15:28-29[106]These New Testament verses repeated certain elements of the Jewish law, and included the prohibition regarding blood, thus making it also binding upon the Early Christian church. See also Council of Jerusalem and the Seven Laws of Noah. This Apostolic Decree is still observed today by the Greek Orthodox Church.[107][edit]Coffee and teaHot drinks are taboo for members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[108] The term "hot drinks" is misleading as the ban is attributed exclusively to coffee and tea (i.e. not hot cocoa or herbal tea). The Word of Wisdom, a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, Mormons are taught to avoid caffeine in general, including cola drinks.[109] Coffee is also taboo for Seventh Day Adventists.Some Catholics urged Pope Clement VIII to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the Pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "... so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it. Let's defeat Satan by blessing his beverage."[110][edit]Human breast milkAlthough human breast milk is universally accepted for infant nutrition, many cultures see the adult consumption of breast milk as taboo.[111][edit]SaltWhile many people in the Western world now seek to reduce the salt content in their diet for health reasons, the Ital style of cooking, which originated among Rastafarians in Jamaica, excludes all added salt in prepared food for religious reasons.[edit]Genetically modified foods tabooAttitudes concerning genetically modified food like genetically modified soya, maize or rapeseed (canola) vary from accepted to taboo in the U.S. and Canada, while many Europeans have a taboo on it as they are more concerned with eating natural food sources. In the UK, only 2% of Britons are said to be "happy to eat GM foods", and more than half of Britons are against genetically modified foods being available to the public, according to a 2003 study.[112]In Europe, regulations state that all food and animal feed containing more than 0.5 percent GM ingredients are required to have strict labelling and traceability, and many supermarkets proudly boast the fact that they don't sell GM foods.[edit]See alsoDietFastingSoft drinksTeetotalism[edit]RestaurantFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, see Restaurant (disambiguation).A restaurant in Manhattan, New York CityA restaurant (UK: /'rest.?.r?nt/, US: /'rest.?r.?nt/ or /'rest.?r.??nt/) prepares and serves food, drink and dessert to customers in return for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on premises, but many restaurants also offer take-out and food delivery services. Restaurants vary greatly in appearance and offerings, including a wide variety of the main chef's cuisines and service models.While inns and taverns were known from antiquity, these were establishments aimed at travelers, and in general locals would rarely eat there. Modern restaurants are dedicated to the serving of food, where specific dishes are ordered by guests and are prepared to their request. The modern restaurant originated in 18th century France, although precursors can be traced back to Roman times.[1]A restaurant owner is called a restaurateur; both words derive from the French verb restaurer, meaning "to restore". Professional artisans of cooking are called chefs, while preparation staff and line cooks prepare food items in a more systematic and less artistic fashion.Contents [hide]1 History2 Types of restaurants3 Restaurant regulations4 Restaurant guides5 Economics5.1 United States5.2 Canada6 See also7 References7.1 Bibliography[edit]HistoryRoman Thermopolium in PompeiiIn Ancient Rome, thermopolia (singular thermopolium) were small restaurant-bars which offered food and drinks to the customer. A typical thermopolia had L-shaped counters into which large storage vessels were sunk, which would contain either hot or cold food. They are linked to the absence of kitchens in many dwellings and the ease with which people could purchase prepared foods. Besides, eating out was also considered an important aspect of socialising.In Pompeii, 158 thermopolia with a service counter have been identified across the whole town area. They were concentrated along the main axes of the town and the public spaces where they were frequented by the locals.[2]Food catering establishments which may be described as restaurants were known since the 11th century in Kaifeng, China's northern capital during the first half of the Song Dynasty (960?1279). With a population of over 1,000,000 people, a culture of hospitality and a paper currency, Kaifeng was ripe for the development of restaurants. Probably growing out of the tea houses and taverns that catered to travellers, Kaifeng's restaurants blossomed into an industry catering to locals as well as people from other regions of China.[3] Stephen H. West argues that there is a direct correlation between the growth of the restaurant businesses and institutions of theatrical stage drama, gambling and prostitution which served the burgeoning merchant middle class during the Song Dynasty.[4]Restaurants catered to different styles of cuisine, price brackets, and religious requirements. Even within a single restaurant much choice was available, and people ordered the entree they wanted from written menus.[3] An account from 1275 writes of Hangzhou, the capital city for the last half of the dynasty:"The people of Hangzhou are very difficult to please. Hundreds of orders are given on all sides: this person wants something hot, another something cold, a third something tepid, a fourth something chilled; one wants cooked food, another raw, another chooses roast, another grill".[5]The restaurants in Hangzhou also catered to many northern Chinese who had fled south from Kaifeng during the Jurchen invasion of the 1120s, while it is also known that many restaurants were run by families formerly from Kaifeng.[6][edit]Types of restaurantsMain article: Types of restaurantsRestaurants in Greek islands are often situated right on the beach. This is an example from Astipalea.Restaurants range from unpretentious lunching or dining places catering to people working nearby, with simple food served in simple settings at low prices, to expensive establishments serving refined food and wines in a formal setting. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing. In the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal, or even in rare cases formal wear.Typically, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, who brings the food when it is ready, and the customers pay the bill before leaving. In finer restaurants there will be a host or hostess or even a ma?tre d'h?tel to welcome customers and to seat them. Other staff waiting on customers include busboys and sommeliers.Restaurants often specialize in certain types of food or present a certain unifying, and often entertaining, theme. For example, there are seafood restaurants, vegetarian restaurants or ethnic restaurants. Generally speaking, restaurants selling food characteristic of the local culture are simply called restaurants, while restaurants selling food of foreign cultural origin are called accordingly,[edit]Restaurant regulationsSee also: Food safetyDepending on local customs and the establishment, restaurants may or may not serve alcohol. Restaurants are often prohibited from selling alcohol without a meal by alcohol sale laws; such sale is considered to be activity for bars, which are meant to have more severe restrictions. Some restaurants are licensed to serve alcohol ("fully licensed"), and/or permit customers to "bring your own" alcohol (BYO / BYOB).[citation needed] In some places restaurant licenses may restrict service to beer, or wine and beer.[citation needed][edit]Restaurant guidesRestaurants offering ethnic food have increased in North America, the UK and Australia in the past few decades. One of many Italian restaurants in the Heights commercial district of North Burnaby, British Columbia, CanadaMain article: Restaurant ratingRestaurant guides review restaurants, often ranking them or providing information for consumer decisions (type of food, handicap accessibility, facilities, etc.). In 12th century Hangzhou (mentioned above as the location of the first restaurant), signs could often be found posted in the city square listing the restaurants in the area and local customer's opinions of the quality of their food. This was an occasion for bribery and even violence.[citation needed] One of the most famous contemporary guides, in Western Europe, is the Michelin series of guides which accord from 1 to 3 stars to restaurants they perceive to be of high culinary merit. Restaurants with stars in the Michelin guide are formal, expensive establishments; in general the more stars awarded, the higher the prices. The main competitor to the Michelin guide in Europe is the guidebook series published by Gault Millau. Unlike the Michelin guide which takes the restaurant d?cor and service into consideration with its rating, Gault Millau only judges the quality of the food. Its ratings are on a scale of 1 to 20, with 20 being the highest.In the United States, the Forbes Travel Guide (previously the Mobil travel guides) and the AAA rate restaurants on a similar 1 to 5 star (Forbes) or diamond (AAA) scale. Three, four, and five star/diamond ratings are roughly equivalent to the Michelin one, two, and three star ratings while one and two star ratings typically indicate more casual places to eat. In 2005, Michelin released a New York City guide, its first for the United States. The popular Zagat Survey compiles individuals' comments about restaurants but does not pass an "official" critical assessment. In the United States Gault Millau is published as the Gayot guide, after founder Andre Gayot. Its restaurant ratings use the same 20 point system, and are all published online.The Good Food Guide, published by the Fairfax Newspaper Group in Australia, is the Australian guide listing the best places to eat. Chefs Hats are awarded for outstanding restaurants and range from one hat through three hats. The Good Food Guide also incorporates guides to bars, cafes and providers. The Good Restaurant Guide is another Australian restaurant guide that has reviews on the restaurants as experienced by the public and provides information on locations and contact details. Any member of the public can submit a review.Nearly all major American newspapers employ food critics and publish online dining guides for the cities they serve. A few papers maintain a reputation for thorough and thoughtful review of restaurants to the standard of the good published guides, but others provide more of a listings service.More recently Internet sites have started up that publish both food critic reviews and popular reviews by the general public. Their major competition comes from bloggers, particularly publishers of food blogs, also called foodies. These writers and publishers represent the common dining aficionado rather than the gourmet, and thus do not provide "official" reviews, but nonetheless are capable of garnering large, loyal followings.[citation needed][edit]EconomicsThe examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2008)Lunch at a restaurant on Queen Street in Toronto, Canada[edit]United StatesAs of 2006, there are approximately 215,000 full-service restaurants in the United States, accounting for $298 billion, and approximately 250,000 limited-service (fast food) restaurants, accounting for $260 billion.[clarification needed][7]One study of new restaurants in Cleveland, Ohio found that 1 in 4 changed ownership or went out of business after one year, and 6 out of 10 did so after three years. (Not all changes in ownership are indicative of financial failure.)[8] The three-year failure rate for franchises was nearly the same.[9][edit]CanadaThere are 86,915 commercial foodservice units in Canada, or 26.4 units per 10,000 Canadians. By segment, there are:[10]38,797 full-service restaurants34,629 limited-service restaurants741 contract and social caterers6,749 drinking placesFully 63% of restaurants in Canada are independent brands. Chain restaurants account for the remaining 37%, and many of these are locally owned and operated franchises.[11][edit]See also Food portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to: RestaurantCulinary artsFoodserviceFood streetFood safetyFood qualityMenu engineeringNational Restaurant AssociationHealth food restaurant[edit]References^ Spang, Rebecca L.: "The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture", Harvard University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-674-00685-0^ Ellis, Steven J. R. (2004): "The Distribution of Bars at Pompeii: Archaeological, Spatial and Viewshed Analyses", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 17, pp. 371?384 (374f.)^ a b Gernet, 133.^ West, 69?76.^ Kiefer, 5?7.^ Gernet, 133?134.^ 2006 U.S. Industry & Market Outlook by Barnes Reports.^ Kerry Miller, "The Restaurant Failure Myth", Business Week, April 16, 2007. Cites an article by H.G. Parsa in Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, published August, 2005.^ Miller, "Failure Myth", page 2^ CRFA?s Provincial InfoStats and Statistics Canada^ ReCount/NPD Group and CRFA?s Foodservice Facts[edit]BibliographyGernet, Jacques (translated by H. M. Wright) (1962), Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276, Stanford: Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-0720-0Kiefer, Nicholas M. (August 2002). "Economics and the Origin of the Restaurant". Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,: pp 5?7.Lundberg, Donald E., The Hotel and Restaurant Business, Boston : Cahners Books, 1974. ISBN 0843620447Spang, Rebecca L. (2000), The Invention of the Restaurant, Harvard University PressWest, Stephen H. "Playing With Food: Performance, Food, and The Aesthetics of Artificiality in The Sung and Yuan", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 57, Number 1, 1997): 67?106.Whitaker, Jan (2002), Tea at the Blue Lantern Inn: A Social History of the Tea Room Craze in America", St. Martin's Press.Fleury, H?l?ne (2007), "L'Inde en miniature ? Paris. Le d?cor des restaurants", Diasporas indiennes dans la ville. Hommes et migrations (Number 1268-1269, 2007): 168-73.Restaurant in the world the ultimate food guide